Epiglottitis nursing: airway emergency and NCLEX tips

Epiglottitis is a rapidly progressive, life-threatening inflammation of the epiglottis and surrounding supraglottic structures. Left untreated – or mismanaged – it can cause complete airway obstruction and death within hours of symptom onset. For the nurse at the bedside, this is a single-priority emergency: protect the airway, minimize stimulation, and keep the patient calm until a controlled definitive airway can be secured.

Before the widespread introduction of the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccine in the late 1980s, epiglottitis was predominantly a disease of children aged 2–7. Vaccination shifted the epidemiology dramatically – the condition is now rare in immunized children and far more common in adults, where bacterial causes differ and the presentation can be more insidious. That shift matters clinically, but the nursing management priorities remain unchanged regardless of patient age.

The single most tested nursing intervention on NCLEX: do not examine the throat. Attempting direct visualization of the oropharynx in a patient with suspected epiglottitis can trigger laryngospasm and complete airway obstruction. This rule is absolute.

Quick reference: epiglottitis at a glance

Pathophysiology and causes

The epiglottis is a cartilaginous flap at the base of the tongue that folds down to protect the trachea during swallowing. It sits in the supraglottic space – the area above the vocal cords. When bacteria (or, less commonly, viruses, fungi, or trauma) infect the epiglottis, the structure mounts an inflammatory response that causes rapid edema. Because the supraglottic space is anatomically narrow – especially in children, whose airways are proportionally smaller – even modest swelling can dramatically reduce the airway lumen. Severe swelling may completely obstruct the trachea.

The inflammatory process typically spreads beyond the epiglottis itself to involve the aryepiglottic folds and surrounding supraglottic mucosa, further compromising the airway. Secretions pool above the obstruction – the patient cannot swallow saliva, producing the drooling sign that is a hallmark of the condition.

Causative organisms and etiologies

Pediatric epiglottitis:

• H. influenzae type b (Hib): historically the dominant cause. Since universal Hib vaccination, pediatric incidence has fallen by over 90% in vaccinated populations. Cases now occur almost exclusively in unvaccinated or incompletely vaccinated children.
• Other organisms in vaccinated children: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Strep), Staphylococcus aureus (including MRSA)

Adult epiglottitis:

• Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae predominate
• Staphylococcus aureus – increasingly common, including community-acquired MRSA
• H. influenzae – still occurs in unvaccinated or immunocompromised adults
• Non-infectious: thermal injury (steam, hot liquid inhalation), caustic ingestion, blunt trauma, foreign body, radiation to the head and neck

The shift toward adult-predominant disease means the NCLEX now tests epiglottitis in a broader context. An adult presenting with sudden-onset severe sore throat, high fever, and inability to swallow should prompt the same airway vigilance as a febrile child with stridor – even if the presentation lacks the textbook “toxic child” appearance.

Understanding the bacteremic potential of Hib epiglottitis is important: in prevaccine pediatric series, most children with Hib epiglottitis had positive blood cultures. Bacteremia is much less common in adults; in a 129-patient adult series, 12% of blood cultures grew Hib (Frantz 1994). This is why sepsis evaluation – blood cultures before antibiotics – is part of the workup, but only after the airway is secured and the patient is stable enough for the procedure.

Clinical presentation: the 4 Ds

The classic mnemonic for epiglottitis signs is the 4 Ds:

1. Dysphagia – difficulty swallowing. The swollen epiglottis makes swallowing painful and mechanically difficult. Patients refuse to eat or drink and may spit out saliva rather than swallow it.

2. Drooling – a consequence of dysphagia. The patient cannot manage secretions and drools. In children, this is conspicuous and alarming. In adults, it may be subtler – watch for pooling in the oropharynx or repeated spitting.

3. Distress – the patient appears acutely ill and anxious. Children are characteristically “toxic-appearing” – febrile, pale or flushed, sitting rigidly still, with wide-eyed anxiety. They resist lying down. Adults may present with a greater range of distress levels, but severity can escalate rapidly.

4. Dysphonia – voice change. The swollen supraglottic structures alter phonation, producing a characteristic “hot potato” voice – a muffled, thick quality as though speaking with a hot object in the mouth. This is distinct from the hoarseness of croup or the normal voice of a child with a peritonsillar abscess.

Additional findings

Fever: High-grade, typically above 38.5°C (101.3°F). Sudden onset alongside sore throat and dysphagia is the characteristic pattern. The rapidity of onset differentiates epiglottitis from tonsillopharyngitis, which develops over days.

Stridor: Inspiratory stridor – a high-pitched sound caused by turbulent airflow through a narrowed upper airway – indicates significant obstruction. Unlike the loud, barking stridor of croup, epiglottitis stridor may be soft early and intensify as obstruction worsens.

Tripod positioning: The patient spontaneously assumes a posture that maximizes their airway diameter – seated upright, leaning forward with hands braced on the knees, chin forward and neck extended in the “sniffing position.” This is a compensatory behavior. Forcing the patient to lie flat removes this compensatory advantage and risks sudden airway closure.

Absence of cough: Epiglottitis characteristically does NOT produce a cough. The absence of the barking cough that defines croup is a critical differentiating feature. If a child presents with sudden high fever and an upper airway emergency but NO cough, epiglottitis must be at the top of the differential.

A thorough head-to-toe assessment framework applies here – but compress it. Airway is assessed first and continuously. Any deterioration (increasing stridor, increasing distress, altered mental status from hypoxia) means the window for controlled intubation is closing.

Diagnostics

Lateral neck X-ray: the thumb sign

A lateral soft-tissue X-ray of the neck is the standard radiographic study when epiglottitis is suspected and the patient is stable enough to leave the bedside (usually an adult with early presentation). The classic finding is the thumb sign (also called the thumbprint sign): the swollen epiglottis on the lateral view resembles the outline of an adult’s thumb, replacing the normal thin, leaf-like silhouette of the epiglottis.

In a normal lateral neck X-ray, the epiglottis appears as a thin, leaf-shaped shadow with a sharp border. Epiglottitis obliterates the vallecula (the space between the base of the tongue and the epiglottis) and produces the characteristic rounded, thick thumbprint silhouette. The hypopharynx may also appear ballooned from air trapping above the obstruction.

Important caveat: A normal lateral neck X-ray does NOT rule out epiglottitis. Early or mild cases may not yet show the classic thumb sign. Clinical diagnosis takes precedence over imaging in a sick patient.

For unstable patients or children: Do NOT send the patient to radiology. A child with suspected epiglottitis should not be transported alone or placed in a supine position for imaging. If X-ray is essential, a portable film is obtained with the airway team present. Many children with classic presentation proceed directly to the OR for controlled intubation and simultaneous diagnostic visualization – the X-ray finding confirms what the clinical picture already indicated.

Direct laryngoscopy

Direct visualization of the epiglottis (confirming the diagnosis with certainty) is performed only in a controlled setting – the operating room, with anesthesia and ENT present. The cherry-red, swollen epiglottis is diagnostic. This procedure is both diagnostic and the precursor to definitive airway management.

In a child with suspected epiglottitis, no instrument goes near the airway until the child is in the OR, because stimulation of the supraglottic structures can trigger laryngospasm and complete obstruction. Stable adults are handled differently: an otolaryngologist commonly confirms the diagnosis with flexible fiberoptic nasolaryngoscopy, with airway equipment ready, and the adult series in the reference list were confirmed this way (Frantz 1994; Bizaki 2011). The nurse’s rule does not change with age: nurses do not examine the throat or insert anything into the mouth.

Laboratory investigations

• Blood cultures: In children, drawn after the airway is secured. Positive in most prevaccine pediatric Hib cases, far less often in adults (12% in Frantz 1994)
• Complete blood count (CBC): Leukocytosis with left shift (elevated bands) consistent with bacterial infection
• C-reactive protein (CRP) and ESR: Elevated, nonspecific markers of inflammation
• Throat culture: Contraindicated pre-intubation. Can be obtained from the hypopharynx after the airway is secured in the OR.

Nursing priorities: airway management

This is the most critical section. Much of the nurse’s airway work in epiglottitis consists of preventing others from performing interventions and keeping the environment calm enough that the patient does not deteriorate before definitive airway management is available.

Rule 1: Do not examine the throat

No tongue depressor. No laryngoscopy blade. No cotton swab for culture. No flashlight examination of the oropharynx. Any instrument inserted into the mouth of a patient with epiglottitis can trigger laryngospasm – the sudden, complete closure of the glottic opening – which may be impossible to reverse without emergent surgical airway. This rule applies to every member of the team.

Rule 2: Allow position of comfort

Do not force the patient to lie flat. Do not place a child supine for IV insertion, radiography, or examination. The tripod position (leaning forward, neck extended) is the patient’s compensation for their narrowed airway. Removing it – especially in a child who is already maximally compensating – can precipitate sudden complete obstruction.

Allow a frightened child to remain in a parent’s arms or lap. A calm child is a safer child. Crying dramatically increases oxygen consumption and agitation-driven inspiratory effort, which can worsen obstruction. Keeping a parent in the room is a nursing priority.

Rule 3: Minimize all stimulation

Bright lights, loud voices, painful procedures, blood draws, IV placement, and monitoring electrode application are all stimuli that can agitate the patient and precipitate deterioration. In a child, even blood pressure cuff inflation may be enough to cause distress.

Delay all non-critical procedures until the airway is secured. IV access, blood cultures, and CBC – everything that is not the airway – waits.

Rule 4: Prepare for complete obstruction

Even as the nurse works to minimize intervention, the room must be set up for the worst-case scenario:

• Crash cart at the bedside
• Bag-valve-mask (BVM) immediately available
• Intubation equipment staged (laryngoscope, endotracheal tubes in multiple sizes, stylets)
• Tracheostomy/cricothyrotomy tray at the bedside or immediately accessible
• Anesthesia and ENT paged and en route – both teams, not one
• Suction running

Oxygen delivery

Oxygen is indicated, but delivery method matters. A tight-fitting oxygen mask placed over the face of a distressed child will agitate them. The preferred method in children – and in anxious adults – is blow-by oxygen: hold the oxygen tubing or a loose mask near (but not over) the face. This delivers supplemental oxygen without the panic of mask confinement.

In adults who are cooperative and less distressed, a standard nasal cannula or loose-fitting simple mask is acceptable. Target SpO2 ≥94%.

Definitive airway management

Definitive airway management in epiglottitis means controlled endotracheal intubation in the operating room, with both anesthesia and ENT present. The OR setting is preferred because:

• If intubation fails due to complete supraglottic obstruction, the surgeon can immediately perform a tracheostomy
• Lighting, positioning, and equipment are optimized
• The environment is controlled – far less likely to agitate the patient during transport

Most children with epiglottitis are intubated with an ET tube 0.5–1.0 mm smaller than predicted for age, as the edematous airway is narrower than the anatomic prediction. The swollen, cherry-red epiglottis is directly visualized during intubation.

Adults are different. Most adults with epiglottitis recover without an artificial airway: 85% in a 129-patient series (Frantz 1994) and 79% in an 18-year Rhode Island series (Mayo-Smith 1995). Stridor and sitting erect were the strongest predictors of needing airway intervention (Frantz 1994), and in Rhode Island every death from airway obstruction happened within 12 hours of presentation (Mayo-Smith 1995). Observation therefore means an ICU or step-down bed, continuous monitoring, a low threshold for escalation, and immediate access to the OR. Any deterioration mandates immediate airway management.

Review the trauma and emergency nursing reference for the broader framework of emergency airway triage – epiglottitis sits at the intersection of pediatric emergency nursing and critical airway management.

Medical and pharmacological treatment

Antibiotic therapy

Antibiotics are administered intravenously after the airway is secured. Do not delay airway management to wait for antibiotic administration.

Corticosteroids

Corticosteroids such as dexamethasone are commonly given to reduce supraglottic edema; agent and dose follow the prescriber’s protocol. No randomized trial supports them. In an adult series, 87% of patients received at least one steroid dose, and steroid use was associated with shorter ICU and hospital stays (Guardiani 2010), but that is an observational finding.

Racemic epinephrine

Nebulized racemic epinephrine is sometimes given in an attempt to shrink supraglottic edema through local vasoconstriction. Evidence for benefit in epiglottitis is weak, its effect is short-lived, and a nebulizer mask can agitate a child. If a provider orders it, treat it as a temporizing step that must never delay definitive airway management, and reassess continuously.

Racemic epinephrine is a standard treatment in croup management, which is the main reason it appears in epiglottitis questions.

Epiglottitis vs croup: NCLEX differentiation

This comparison is among the most high-yield topics in pediatric airway emergency nursing. NCLEX frequently presents a scenario and asks the nurse to differentiate the two – because the management is opposite in the critical detail that matters most (throat examination and stimulation).

NCLEX tip 1: The NCLEX will present a child with fever and an upper airway emergency and expect you to differentiate epiglottitis from croup by the clinical features. The decisive differentiators are: (1) barking cough = croup; (2) drooling + “hot potato” voice = epiglottitis; (3) toxic appearance = epiglottitis. The X-ray signs (steeple vs thumb) are secondary confirmation.

NCLEX tip 2: A NCLEX question will ask: “The nurse suspects epiglottitis in a child. What is the most important nursing action?” The correct answer is to avoid examining the throat and notify the provider and anesthesia immediately – not to perform a throat culture, not to obtain a tongue depressor for examination, not to place a NRB mask.

Nursing interventions by phase

Nursing assessment priorities (by system)

Airway:

• Continuous monitoring – any change in stridor quality, increase in distress, decrease in SpO2, or altered mental status is an emergency signal
• Do not rely on pulse oximetry alone – oximetry remains normal until obstruction is near-complete; assess stridor, work of breathing, and mental status as primary indicators
• Have surgical airway kit immediately accessible: a tracheostomy in the ED or ICU is a last resort but must be performable within seconds if intubation fails

Respiratory:

• SpO2 q15–30 min or continuous; respiratory rate; accessory muscle use
• End-tidal CO2 (capnography) after intubation – confirm ET tube placement
• Post-intubation chest X-ray – confirm ET tube tip position (mid-trachea, above the carina)

Cardiovascular:

• Hib bacteremia can cause septic physiology – monitor for tachycardia, hypotension, fever pattern
• IV fluid resuscitation for signs of distributive shock (see sepsis nursing for fluid management framework)
• Maintain two peripheral IV lines after airway is secured

Neurological:

• Level of consciousness is a proxy for oxygenation – agitation or obtundation in the pre-intubation phase signals severe hypoxia
• In children: inconsolability, refusal to interact with parents, or sudden quiet after agitation (exhaustion) = deterioration

Medications:

• Give IV antibiotics as soon as the airway is secure – do not delay them for cultures in a bacteremic-appearing patient; draw blood cultures at the same time where possible
• Document antibiotic timing, and tell the provider if cultures were drawn after antibiotics

Hib vaccine: why it matters clinically

The first Hib conjugate vaccine was licensed in the US in 1987, and infant vaccination followed from 1990. Invasive Hib disease (meningitis, epiglottitis, septic arthritis) has declined by more than 99% since the prevaccine era (CDC Pink Book). Before vaccination, epiglottitis was a common pediatric emergency – pediatric wards maintained standing orders for emergent airway management. Vaccination made the condition rare enough that many younger emergency physicians and nurses have never seen a case.

That rarity creates two clinical hazards:

1. Delayed recognition: Providers who have never seen epiglottitis may not think of it, particularly when the presentation is atypical (adult patient, gradual onset in immunocompromised patient, non-Hib bacteremia)
2. False reassurance from vaccination status: An unvaccinated child, an immigrant child with unknown immunization history, or an immunocompromised vaccinated child can still develop Hib epiglottitis. Vaccination history lowers the probability while leaving some risk in place.

For pediatric nursing assessment, vaccination status is part of the history, but it does not override clinical presentation. A child with the 4 Ds and toxic appearance is epiglottitis until proven otherwise – regardless of vaccination history.

The epidemiological shift also means epiglottitis is now predominantly an adult disease – and adult presentations are often atypical: less dramatic, more likely to present as severe sore throat with dysphagia without classic stridor, and occasionally misattributed to peritonsillar abscess or severe tonsillopharyngitis. The throat exam prohibition applies equally in adults – and the stakes are identical.

Recovery and discharge

Extubation criteria

Most children with epiglottitis are extubated within 24–48 hours as the antibiotic-driven reduction in epiglottic edema progresses. Extubation criteria include:

• Direct laryngoscopic visualization (by ENT or anesthesia) confirming reduced epiglottic edema
• Afebrile or significantly improving fever trend
• Ability to manage secretions (saliva not pooling)
• Development of an air leak around the ET tube in children – a leak that appears as edema resolves indicates the lumen around the tube is widening
• Negative or final culture results guiding antibiotic selection

Extubation is performed at the bedside in the ICU with the anesthesia team present and intubation equipment available. Re-intubation after failed extubation is uncommon but possible.

Oral antibiotic transition

After extubation and confirmed clinical improvement, patients transition to an appropriate oral antibiotic based on culture and sensitivity results. Common oral agents: amoxicillin-clavulanate, cefuroxime, or cefpodoxime for susceptible organisms. Duration: typically 7–10 days total from initiation.

Discharge education

Vaccination counseling: A child younger than 24 months who develops invasive Hib disease is considered still susceptible, because the infection may not produce protective immunity. CDC advises giving Hib vaccine as soon as possible during convalescence. Older children with an incomplete record are caught up on the routine schedule.

Protecting household contacts: For Hib disease, ACIP recommends rifampin prophylaxis for all household contacts when the household includes a child younger than 4 years who is not fully vaccinated, a child younger than 12 months who has not completed the primary series, or an immunocompromised child of any vaccination status (Briere 2014). An index patient younger than 2 years treated with an antibiotic other than cefotaxime or ceftriaxone also receives rifampin before discharge. Nurses should flag the household composition to the provider and public health team.

Return precautions: Patients and families should understand that epiglottitis can recur, particularly in adult patients where the trigger may be recurrent or structural (e.g., chronic trauma from acid reflux, immunosuppression). Fever with severe sore throat and any difficulty swallowing warrants immediate ED evaluation – not a wait-and-see approach.

Follow-up: ENT follow-up within 1–2 weeks for most patients; sooner if non-Hib pathogen was identified or if the cause remains unclear (need to evaluate for malignancy or structural lesion in adults with recurrent supraglottitis).

10 NCLEX tips

NCLEX tip 3: The single highest-yield nursing action in epiglottitis: do not examine the throat. No tongue depressor, no cotton swab, no flashlight. Throat examination can trigger laryngospasm and complete airway obstruction. If a NCLEX question offers “prepare for throat culture” as an option, it is wrong.

NCLEX tip 4: Allow position of comfort. A child who spontaneously assumes the tripod position (leaning forward, neck extended) is compensating for a narrowed airway. This position must be maintained. Forcing the child supine – for an IV, for X-ray, for examination – is dangerous and is a wrong answer on NCLEX.

NCLEX tip 5: IV access, blood cultures, CBC – all of these wait until the airway is secured. In a patient with suspected epiglottitis, a painful stimulus (IV insertion, blood draw) can trigger agitation that precipitates complete obstruction. “Obtain IV access first” is a wrong answer if the airway has not been secured.

NCLEX tip 6: The X-ray differentiators: epiglottitis produces the thumb sign (thumbprint sign) on a lateral neck X-ray – the swollen epiglottis looks like a thumb. Croup produces the steeple sign on an AP view – narrowed subglottic trachea resembles a church steeple. Both signs confirm what the clinical picture already suggested.

NCLEX tip 7: Absence of barking cough distinguishes epiglottitis from croup. Croup’s pathognomonic feature is the barking or seal-like cough. Epiglottitis has no cough – the patient is typically too dyspneic and distressed to cough, and the obstruction is supraglottic (above the cords), not subglottic.

NCLEX tip 8: Blow-by oxygen – not a tight-fitting mask – is the preferred delivery method for supplemental O2 in a distressed child with suspected epiglottitis. A tight mask agitates the child; agitation worsens obstruction. Hold the oxygen tubing or loosely mask near the face.

NCLEX tip 9: Epiglottitis is now more common in adults than in children in vaccinated populations; the mean age of US patients admitted with it is about 45 (Shah 2010). Adult presentation may be less dramatic – severe sore throat and painful swallowing, often without classic stridor – but the same nursing rules apply, and stridor in an adult signals higher airway risk. An adult with these symptoms and drooling or voice change requires the same airway vigilance as a febrile child in tripod position.

NCLEX tip 10: Hib vaccine history does not eliminate epiglottitis risk. Unvaccinated children, immunocompromised patients, and adults (who are not routinely vaccinated with Hib conjugate) remain at risk. Vaccination lowers the probability and cannot be used to rule the diagnosis out.

NCLEX tip 11: Both anesthesia AND ENT must be at the bedside (or in the OR) for definitive airway management. Anesthesia manages intubation; ENT is available to perform an immediate tracheostomy if intubation fails. Calling one team but not the other is insufficient.

NCLEX tip 12: Recovery is rapid with appropriate treatment. Most patients are extubated within 24–48 hours. If a NCLEX scenario asks about extubation readiness, the criteria are: reduced epiglottic edema on direct visualization, afebrile or improving fever, ability to manage secretions. Extubation should occur in the ICU with anesthesia present, not on a general ward.

Related clinical topics

Epiglottitis sits at the center of several overlapping clinical clusters:

• Respiratory emergencies: Asthma nursing covers wheeze vs stridor differentiation in more depth – a foundational skill for any airway emergency assessment. Pneumonia nursing addresses the broader respiratory infection cluster relevant to post-extubation recovery and aspiration risk.
• Pediatric context: Pediatric nursing reference provides vital sign norms and age-appropriate assessment frameworks – essential for interpreting epiglottitis severity in children of different ages.
• Vital sign interpretation: Vital signs by age gives pediatric HR and RR reference ranges – a tachypneic child may appear to be compensating normally when they are approaching respiratory failure.
• Infection and sepsis: Sepsis nursing covers the bacteremic-septic physiology of Hib epiglottitis – including sepsis recognition, fluid resuscitation, and antibiotic timing – relevant to post-airway management.
• Emergency frameworks: Trauma and emergency nursing reference provides the multi-system emergency assessment structure. Epiglottitis is a single-system-dominant emergency (airway), but bacterial epiglottitis with concurrent bacteremia can evolve to a multi-system picture quickly.
• Drug recognition: Drug classifications covers the pharmacological families involved – cephalosporins (ceftriaxone), corticosteroids (dexamethasone), and sympathomimetics (racemic epinephrine) – for NCLEX drug-category questions.

References

1. Shah RK, Stocks C. Epiglottitis in the United States: national trends, variances, prognosis, and management. Laryngoscope. 2010;120(6):1256-1262. doi:10.1002/lary.20921
2. Sobol SE, Zapata S. Epiglottitis and croup. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America. 2008;41(3):551-566. doi:10.1016/j.otc.2008.01.012
3. Briem B, Thorvardsson O, Petersen H. Acute epiglottitis in Iceland 1983-2005. Auris Nasus Larynx. 2009;36(1):46-52. doi:10.1016/j.anl.2008.03.012
4. Bizaki AJ, Numminen J, Vasama JP, Laranne J, Rautiainen M. Acute supraglottitis in adults in Finland: review and analysis of 308 cases. Laryngoscope. 2011;121(10):2107-2113. doi:10.1002/lary.22147
5. Hébert PC, Ducic Y, Boisvert D, Lamothe A. Adult epiglottitis in a Canadian setting. Laryngoscope. 1998;108(1 Pt 1):64-69. doi:10.1097/00005537-199801000-00012
6. American Academy of Pediatrics. Haemophilus influenzae infections. In: Kimberlin DW, ed. Red Book: 2024–2027 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 33rd ed. American Academy of Pediatrics; 2024.
7. Rothrock SG, Pignatiello GA, Howard RM. Radiologic diagnosis of epiglottitis: objective criteria for all ages. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 1990;19(9):978-982. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(05)82557-0
8. Schloss MD, Gold JA, Rosales JK, Baxter JD. Acute epiglottitis: current management. Laryngoscope. 1983;93(4):489-493. doi:10.1002/lary.1983.93.4.489
9. Frantz TD, Rasgon BM, Quesenberry CP Jr. Acute epiglottitis in adults: analysis of 129 cases. JAMA. 1994;272(17):1358-1360. PMID 7933397
10. Glynn F, Fenton JE. Diagnosis and management of supraglottitis (epiglottitis). Current Infectious Disease Reports. 2008;10(3):200-204. doi:10.1007/s11908-008-0033-8
11. Carey MJ. Epiglottitis in adults. American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1996;14(4):421-424. doi:10.1016/S0735-6757(96)90065-0
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Haemophilus influenzae. In: Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (Pink Book). 14th ed. CDC; 2021. Chapter 8. https://www.cdc.gov/pinkbook/hcp/table-of-contents/chapter-8-haemophilus-influenzae.html
13. Guardiani E, Bliss M, Harley E. Supraglottitis in the era following widespread immunization against Haemophilus influenzae type B: evolving principles in diagnosis and management. Laryngoscope. 2010;120(11):2183-2188. doi:10.1002/lary.21083
14. Mayo-Smith MF, Spinale JW, Donskey CJ, Yukawa M, Li RH, Schiffman FJ. Acute epiglottitis: an 18-year experience in Rhode Island. Chest. 1995;108(6):1640-1647. doi:10.1378/chest.108.6.1640
15. Stroud RH, Friedman NR. An update on inflammatory disorders of the pediatric airway: epiglottitis, croup, and tracheitis. American Journal of Otolaryngology. 2001;22(4):268-275. doi:10.1053/ajot.2001.24825
16. Rybak MJ, Le J, Lodise TP, et al. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin for serious methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: a revised consensus guideline and review by the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 2020;77(11):835-864. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxaa036
17. Briere EC, Rubin L, Moro PL, Cohn A, Clark T, Messonnier N. Prevention and control of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recommendations and Reports. 2014;63(RR-01):1-14. PMID 24572654
18. Moore M, Little P. Humidified air inhalation for treating croup. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011;(6):CD002870. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002870.pub3
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. 2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions, Appendix A: type and duration of precautions recommended for selected infections and conditions. Updated September 11, 2026. Accessed October 21, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/infection-control/hcp/isolation-precautions/appendix-a-type-duration.html (Epiglottitis due to Hib and group A Streptococcus rows.)